Buddhism and the Sâṅkhya philosophy. Its psychology approaches that of
the latter in that both believe in the existence of innumerable
independent souls. But the doctrine of the activity of souls and their
distribution into masses of matter is in accordance with the Vedânta,
according to which the principle of the soul penetrates every thing
existing. In the further development of the soul doctrine, the conceptions
'individual soul' and 'living being' to which the Jaina and the Brâhmaṇ
give the same name,—_jîva_, seem to become confounded. The Jaina
idea of space and time as real substances is also found in the
Vaiśeshika system. In placing _Dharma_ and _Adharma_ among
substances Jainism stands alone.

The third jewel, the right Walk which the Jaina ethics contains, has its
kernel in the five great oaths which the Jaina ascetic takes on his
entrance into the order. He promises, just as the Brâhmaṇ penitent, and
almost in the same words, not to hurt, not to speak untruth, to
appropriate nothing to himself without permission, to preserve chastity,
and to practice self-sacrifice. The contents of these simple rules become
most extraordinarily extended on the part of the Jainas by the insertion
of five clauses, in each of which are three separate active instruments of
sin, in special relation to thoughts, words, and deeds. Thus, concerning
the oath not to hurt, on which the Jaina lays the greatest emphasis: it
includes not only the intentional killing or hurting of living beings,
plants, or the souls existing in dead matter, it requires also the utmost
carefulness in the whole manner of life, in all movements, a watchfulness
over all functions of the body by which anything living might be hurt.
[Footnote: The Digambara sect, at least in southern India, do not seem to
be all quite so punctiliously careful in this as the Śvetâmbara of
western India.—Ed.] It demands finally strict watch over the heart and
tongue, and the avoidance of all thoughts and words which might lead to