for diagnosis. Epilepsy and apoplexy were understood as spasms
inside the head. It was known what substances served as laxatives
and diuretics. Teeth were extracted, eye cataracts were removed
with a silver needle, and skin from the arm was grafted onto a
mutilated face.

Englishmen who had collected books on philosophy, medicine,
astronomy, and history and literature books from the continent
gave their collections to the universities, which started their
libraries. Marco Polo's discoveries on his journey to China were
known.

The requirements of elementary and higher studies were adjusted
in 1393 and began the public school system. William of Wykeham's
school, St. Mary College of Winchester in Oxford was the
prototype. The curriculum was civil law, canon law, medicine,
astronomy with astronomical instruments that were made, theology,
and the arts. The arts text books were still grammar, logic,
Donatus, and Aristotle. Many laymen were literate, for instance
country gentry, merchants, and craftsmen. Laymen instead of
clerics were now appointed to the great offices of state.

Parliament was composed of representatives from 100 boroughs and
37 shires. Merchants were entering Parliament and paid much of
the taxes. Some were created Earls and appointed as ministers to
the King. Edward III did not summon anyone to his council who did
not have the confidence of the magnates [barons, earls, bishops,
and abbots]. Under him, the commons took a leading part in the
granting of taxes and the presentation of petitions.